The Evolution of Computer Programming Languages

CNC Programming

The ENIAC, one of the world's first computers, was programmed solely by hand. The ENIAC, short for Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer, was one of the first computers not to use software; it was programmed using a series of switches or cables that needed to be manually manipulated. This programming was labor intensive and not very practical, because of this, programming evolved into writing and storing programs within the computer. (Malaga, 2005)

First Generation Programming Languages

First generation language computers were programmed using simple instructions known as machine language; machine languages consisted of a series of zeroes and ones, making machine languages binary. Each series of zeroes and ones represented a different number, and each processor type used a completely different series; 011010110, is an example of the first generation computer programming language. Many problems exist with this type of programming: errors were common, the system was complicated to use, and it relied on machines. When errors were made they were difficult to correct-picture the difficulty in finding a mistake in line after line of nothing but zeros and ones. One major complication was that any program written was not transferable or usable from one type of CPU to another: a program written for IBM could not be used with a Macintosh. (Malaga, 2005)

Second Generation Programming Languages

By the mid-40s to early-50s programmers were able to make a small improvement on first generation programming languages, but the dependence upon machines remained a large problem. Second generation languages introduced the assembly language; the assembly language, which was abbreviations of words or simple words, antiquated the first generation language of series of zeroes and ones. An example of second generation programming language is: mov $0xc61, %al. Assembly languages were more programmer friendly, but they were still difficult to use, and the programs were still dependent upon the CPU for which they were written. (Malaga, 2005)

Third Generation Programming Languages

Third generation languages, devised by Dr. Grace Murray Hopper in 1957, were able to be written using source code or instructions written in English; the source code was then "translated" into machine language (which is the only language a computer can understand) or object code by a computer program labeled a compiler. Using third generation languages enabled the programmer to no longer need to be familiarized with assembly language or machine language, because the compiler converted the source code for the programmer. The majority of programs written today still use third generation languages, and programs today are able to assist the programmer with debugging and writing source code and create a user interface simply and quickly. (Malaga, 2005)

Third generation programming languages solved the problems prevalent in first and second generation languages; namely, the third generation languages were more programmer friendly and were no longer machine dependent, although the source code still needed to be individualized to each different type of processor. (Malaga, 2005)

Fourth Generation Programming Languages

Fourth generation languages improved greatly on third generation languages, which still remained hard to become skilled at because fourth generation languages more closely resembled spoken language. With the use of fourth generation languages, even the novice can easily write a simple program. Fourth generation languages are more cost effective, in that they enable the user to develop software in a more efficient and timely manner. (Malaga, 2005)

Object Oriented Programming
Object oriented programming differs from generations 1-4 of programming languages by the method in which they receive and process data. Object oriented programming uses objects to process and manipulate data whereas the 1-4 generation languages were centered more on receiving and processing data, then providing output; the data is separated from the actual processing. Programmers used to problem solve by executing one sequence after another, this changed, when programmers changed the way they viewed the world: some philosophers hypothesize that everything in an environment is related to objects and the way in which they can be manipulated or moved. To replicate this line of thinking, object oriented programming allows programmers to generate objects that can interact with each other. (Malaga, 2005)

This change in thinking about the way data is processed is the largest difference from earlier generations of programming languages. In short, object oriented programming differs from older programming generations 1-4 because it allows for the interaction of different programs such as accounts billable, receiving, and report processing; for the average user, it allows for shorter report generating, reduced errors, and a more balanced and organized approach to accounting (or many other programming usages). Object oriented programming and generation 1-4 programming are similar in the way in which tasks are performed: lines are logically and systematically executed in order. (Malaga, 2005)

It is clear, even to the novice, that the progression and improvement to programming languages have made software programming increasingly user friendly, with the ability to transfer programs from one type of central processing unit to another with little hassle.

References:

Malaga, R. A. (2005). Information systems technology. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Angel Bonin, Yahoo! Contributor Network
Jan 28, 2008 "Contribute content like this. Start Here."

Purchasing Reading Glasses On the Internet

Mango Languages
 

Regardless of our background, health, gender or race, when we get into our middle age years, our eyesight starts to falter. It is usually the near vision that suffers first, although for me it is focusing on details on low light. Some people are rich and lucky enough to get contacts, buy glasses or even have some surgery. Others aren't so fortunate and don't have the finances or access to lenses or spectacles. Then there are those, who need help to see, but are too vain to wear glasses and too lazy or scared to wear contact lenses. Of course, we shouldn't forget those poor people who need glasses all the time from a young age, or those who are blind. One good thing that many people in the developed world have is computers, and sometimes the internet. Not only does this technology give us the opportunity to enlarge the text and read it on a backlit monitor, but it also often gives us access to the World Wide Web, also known as the Internet. And therefore the opportunity to buy reading glasses online.
Having a computer, or at least access to one, allows us to use programs such as Microsoft Word and Adobe to read documents that are backlit and can be enlarged for easier reading. As I write this, I have chosen a nice clear font and enlarged the page to see clearly from about 80cm away from a 22" monitor. I do need some help when trying to read things in low light, but I'm a mixture of too vain, lazy, scared and mean to do anything about it. My last eye test was about six years ago and they gave me the all-clear.
Of course, when the day comes that I have to do something about it, I'm really not sure where to shop. Go into a store or buy reading glasses online. Here in the modern world there are dozens, scores even, of opticians, most of which are owned by or belong to a few franchises. I will certainly use the internet and its numerous web boards, forums, advertisements and unbiased health websites. The internet has plenty of biased advertising but also lots of fair, honest and unbiased help. Anyone who has a bit of time just needs to do some research and not believe the first thing they read. It's important to check the source of the page you're reading, and get it backed up with further research.
Buying reading glasses is not the biggest decision in your life, but it can be as easy or stressful as you want to make it. First, you need to know your prescription, which of course needs to be done by a qualified person. Then it's all about your preferred style and budget. It's also important to get a pair which are durable. Broken glasses are no use and with their transparent lenses and typically thin frames, they're difficult to spot until it's too late. Those people who wear glasses all the time are likely to have them on their head when they sit down or make some other physical movement. And those who have worn glasses for most of their lives are used to not damaging them, usually by learning from earlier mistakes. However, people approaching senior years are less likely to learn quickly and have problems adapting to new routines. Therefore, accidentally breaking your first pair, by sitting on them for example, is all too common.
To sum up, needing some help reading at close range is nothing to be ashamed of and comes to most of us eventually. The important things to do is get your eyes tested by a professional, research the type of glasses fit your budget and style, then buy them online or at a local store.

Poom Morgan. My passions include travelling, yoga, business reading and languages.
Funky Reading Glasses in the uk and Ireland at The Ready Reader Man

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Poom_Morgan

Learn English - Learn English Using the Internet

Learn English Language

Lots of people want to learn English these days. If you think about it, there are few other languages in the world that are so widely spoken and so important to know. Mandarin, Arabic, and Spanish are certainly useful to know. However, English may be the most commonly spoken language for international business and travel. In any case, it is a language that is important to learn if you want to get ahead in many areas of life. Immigrants that come to the United States have to learn English in order to get jobs and make a good living. Tourists need English to find their way around. Businessmen need English to communicate with international clients and partners. No matter how you look at it, English plays a big role in today's world.
So, how does one learn English? Well, there are a number of ways to approach this. The traditional method is to go to an institute or special school where English is taught. You pay a fee in order to attend regular classes and study with a professional teacher. This works great most of the time, but there are a few drawbacks. Many people do not have the time or the money to invest in an intensive course at another location. The constant trips to class can make it a time consuming ordeal.
It can also be difficult to learn without special attention from a teacher. The large groups of students that attend most classrooms can make it hard to get the attention you need to learn English. If this seems like it might be a problem for you or someone you know, then there is a great alternative out there for you. More and more people are using the internet to teach and learn languages. A wide variety of online courses are now available for learners of all languages and skill levels. You can get access to a private teacher with a whiteboard and a webcam. This puts you right in the virtual classroom, without the hassle of a trip to an institute.
You can study in the comfort of your own home or office. Imagine how fast you will learn with individualized or group courses via the internet. There are tons of professionals out there who can help you learn English fast. It is an advanced world, and language learning is no exception. Look for an online course that suits your needs. Learning to speak English may be easier than you think.

Marc Anderson is the manager of an online English language tutoring company called TalktoCanada.com that helps a variety of clients from around the world improve their spoken English online. All of the English lessons are online and conducted with a headset and web cam in real time with a qualified Canadian English language trainer. If you would like to learn English online, visit TalktoCanada.com today.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Marc_W_Anderson

Learn How to Speak Korean - Language Tips and Suggestions

Learning Korean Language
 

If you want to learn how to speak Korean language, there are some tips which will help you along. Some of these tips could apply equally to other languages, but here we specifically focus on tips for those who want to learn how to speak Korean.
In some respects Korean might seem like a daunting language. For English speakers, or people of those languages which use the Roman alphabet, the whole issue of the Korean alphabet, and the scripts, creates the perception of a challenging language.
Rest assured - this is simply not the case. Korean writing in Hangul script has been recognized by Discovery magazine (1994) as the most logical writing system in the world. And logical systems are the easiest to learn, because of the absence of many exceptions or irregular rules.
Hangul translates directly as single script. It reflects ancient efforts to harmonize all of the disparate scripts which were in existence in the middle ages. This represents a thoughtful approach to simplifying the language, and that is reflected in the relative ease of learning Korean.
Some learn how to speak Korean language because there is a test which is required for foreigners who wish to live and work in South Korea. Some learn for travel and vacation purposes. The common theme is that most people who begin to learn how to speak Korean are pleasantly surprised at how less difficult it is than they first imagined.
Easy or not, the right approach is of paramount importance, so here are some learn how to speak Korean language tips:
1: Practice daily for an hour: An hour a day of daily practice is more than enough to get you conversational in about eight weeks assuming you are using a well structured course as your guide.
2: Expose yourself to complete spoken sentences from the outset: A challenge in learning any language is that sentence structure is different to sentence structure for English. If you don't pay attention to sentence structure then you will not approach spoken Korean as a Korean speaker would, and this will lengthen the learning curve and perhaps even cause you to give up prematurely.
3: Tailor your initial vocabulary: Only you know why you are learning Korean, so tailor the initial vocabulary to words appropriate for your earliest conversations.
4: Watch Korean language movies with English subtitles: This goes back to the exposure to real conversations and sentences. It is also a great way of naturally expanding your vocabulary and getting familiar with pronunciation at the same time.
5: Choose a course which gives you immersion in Korean: You need a good course to successfully learn how to speak Korean language fast. That is why an online course is usually the best choice. Characteristics of a great course include lots of audio modules which give you access to conversational Korean and complete sentences immediately, modules which help with verbs and vocabulary, and a structure which allows you and encourages you to practice for an hour a day.
Follow those tips and you'll be surprised at how quickly you learn how to speak Korean language competently.

The author writes extensively on language learning. Read his Rocket Korean Premium Review - his most recommend approach to learn how to speak Korean Language fast and effectively. At his website, you can also begin to Learn Korean Online Free.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=NP_Dowling